Unlike the cosmic, aniconic beginnings of many Hindu deities whose origins are obscured by layers of mythology, Krishna, particularly as Vasudeva Krsna, stands out as perhaps the only major Hindu deity whose worship can be historically traced in identifiable, datable stages. His early connections to the Vrsni lineage, his gradual transformation from hero to deity, his adoption into a sectarian Bhakti cult, and finally his integration into the Vaishnava cosmological system offer us a rare, layered view of religious evolution within the subcontinent. In other words, Krsna, like many other subjects of apotheosis, is not merely legendary. He is partly historical, cultic, and political. A figure who inspired coinage, architecture, and cross-cultural diplomacy. Therefore, the rise of the Vrsni-Krsna cult from its tribal roots through its post-Mauryan efflorescence and eventual absorption into pan-Indian religious ideology must be analysed with an emphasis placed on archaeological, numismatic, and textual sources, ranging from Jain and Puranic references to Greco-Indian inscriptions and imperial iconography.
The Vrsnis, as a tribal group, first appear as a distinct Proto-Yadava clan based in the region of Mathura and Surasena, later spreading into Saurashtra. While the exact historicity of the clan’s origins is difficult to ascertain, early textual references to them abound. The earlier redactions of Mahabharata refers to the Vrsnis as a warlike tribe and frequently associates Krsna with their internal politics. Puranic genealogies, although centuries later, link the Vrsnis to the Lunar race (Chandravamsa). But the clan’s real-world activity is far more grounded. Scholars by and large agree that they were a known group of people in the Late Vedic period. There are direct references to the Vrsnis (including the mentions of Krsna and Arjuna worship) in Panini's Ashtadhyayi (6th century BC), and mentions of Kamsavadham as a play in Patanjali's Mahabhashya (2nd century BC). However, early Buddhist texts, especially the Pali canon, doesn't seem to have any direct reference to Krsna, Vrsnis, or their worship. Jain literature too, only mentions characters "comparable" to Vrsni heroes in historical terms. This points to the obvious possibility that the Vasudeva worship was still regional during the time of the Buddha and Mahavira.
[Note: Jaina Cosmology would later incorporate Krsna and Balarama as historical warriors].
Archaeologically, while there are no early Vrsni "inscriptions" (these tribal groups were not imperial entities) from the pre-Mauryan period, certain cave sites in later centuries contain depictions of Krsna and Balarama that imply a visual lineage stemming from earlier regional worship practices. One such important instance is seen at Tikla, Madhya Pradesh, where Vāsudeva-Krsna, Samkarsana-Balarama and Ekanamsa (a female figure, probably Krsna's sister or companion) are depicted side by side. Furthermore, certain tribal iconographic elements (such as the plough and the mace) persist into later Vasudeva imagery, suggesting continuity from folk to formal religion.
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| Tikla cave painting of the Vrsni triad (Krsna in the middle), 2nd - 1st Century BC |
So was Krsna a Deified Ancestor or a Tribal Hero?
The earliest historically verifiable form of Krsna's worship was surely centered on the character of Vasudeva. Some scholars argue that he is a separate entity that merged with the Vrsni hero, while others are of the opinion that they are one and the same. Regardless, the term "Vasudevaka Bhagavata" appears in epigraphic records such as the Heliodoros pillar (c. 113 BCE), where the ambassador of the Indo-Greek king Antialkidas, Heliodoros, declares himself a Bhagavata (devotee) of Vasudeva. This not only suggests the transcultural appeal of the cult, but also marks the earliest epigraphic attestations of a personal, devotional form of worship toward the deity. What is also interesting is the behemothian rise of Buddhism and Jainism as full-fledged religions during this period, challenging the ritualistic Vedic worship in the region. In other words, it is possible that Bhagavatism evolved independently as a natural response to the heterodox ascendancy at the time, and not as a part of the Brahmanical (Vaishnavite) evolution. Scholars such as Dandekar and J.N. Banerjea argue that the Bhagavata religion, the sect devoted to Vasudeva, clearly predates the integration of Krsna into the broader Vaishnavite pantheon. That is, unlike later depictions of Krsna as an avatar of Vishnu, Vasudeva in these early contexts appears as an independent, supreme deity.
The archaeological record from Mathura around this time also reveals terracotta plaques and early anthropomorphic representations of Vasudeva, sometimes in standing posture flanked by attendants, but not in relation to other Brahmanical deities. This suggests the emergence of an iconographic canon that would later evolve into classical Hindu temple worship.
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| Heliodoros pillar, Besnagar, Madhya Pradesh (Copyright) |
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In numismatics, the coins of the Indo-Greek king Agathocles (c. 180 BCE) are especially significant. These coins carry depictions of Vasudeva with attributes such as the conch and wheel, labeled in Brahmi script, clearly identifying him in a divine capacity. Moreover, Agathocles' issuance of bilingual coins with both Greek and Brahmi legends reflects a conscious effort to bridge the cultural divide between Greek and Indian subjects through religion. This is not something that was unique to the Indo-Greek era. The identification of Krsna with Heracles by the Seleucids, especially Megasthenes (c. 300 BC), is more than a semantic coincidence. Heracles, the Greek precursor of Hercules, a demi-god and hero of immense strength, bore remarkable similarities to Krsna as understood in his Vasudeva form. Both were associated with power, local geography, and the defeat of tyrants and mythical beings. In Megasthenes’ account, Heracles was worshipped in the city of Methora (Mathura), and his descendants ruled a prosperous land, a clear echo of Krsna’s narrative. Not only that, even Dionysos, the Greek God of Wine who "conquered India" during the mythical past, was supposedly worshipped in Mathura. This is now understood to be a description of Balarama worship in the region.
Interestingly, during the early Indo-Scythian (Saka) period that proceeded the Greek rule in India, there is a noticeable inclination towards Saṃkarṣaṇa Balarama. The coins of both Maues (the first Indo-Scythian ruler) and Azes depict Saṃkarṣaṇa with his iconic mace and plough.
These identifications may not imply theological fusion but cultural translation. The Greeks and Scythians saw in Vasudeva-Krsna and his Vrsni peers a story close to their own heroic tradition. Unlike Shiva or Vishnu, Krsna could be rendered into the Greco-Roman imagination without metaphysical dissonance. He was a man-god, a political actor, and a moral hero. This adaptability made Krsna uniquely suitable for foreign reverence and syncretic integration. And as evident from the duo's named depictions at Chilas (Gilgit-Baltistan) from 1st century BC, the cult had entered the ephemeral rhythms of the Silk Road, taking their ideas far into Bactria and elsewhere.
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| Greek King Agathocles' coins depicting Balarama-Samkarshana (left) and Vāsudeva-Krishna (c. 180 BC) |
Back in the heartland, Mathura still continued to become a significant site of cultic activity. Sculptures from late first millennium BC frequently show a two-figure group identified as Balarama and Vasudeva Krsna, both with their respective iconographic emblems (the plough and the mace for Balarama; the chakra and conch for Krishna). These early divine dyads and triads predate the later Trimurti model and signify the importance of fraternal worship in early Krsnaism.
As the Krsna-Vasudeva cult spread geographically, it underwent significant philosophical transformations. The Nanaghat inscription (Maharashtra) of the Satavahanas mention both Balarama and Vasudeva, signifying the spread of Bhagavata sects by the 1st century BC. By the early centuries CE, Vasudeva worship merged with the worship of Narayana and Vishnu. Textual traditions like the Bhagavad Gita (part of the Mahabharata, likely composed between 200 BCE and 200 CE) played a pivotal role in reinterpreting Krsna not merely as a heroic figure but as the cosmic absolute: The Purushottama.
This phase also saw the rise of the Pañcarātra and Bhāgavata sects, both of which placed Krsna-Vasudeva at the center of their cosmologies. The Narayanīya section of the Mahabharata and the Mahabharata Tātparya Nirnaya of Madhvacharya (Medieval India) show how the deity was absorbed into Vaishnava Vedanta metaphysics. Elsewhere, in Andhra Pradesh, the worship of five Vrsni heroes (Panca Vrsni Vira) had not only turned into its own cult, but also merged with the Sātvata cult, as evident from the stone reliefs that depict the five heroes alongside Narasimha (4th century AD). However, this collective worship of distinct Vṛṣṇi figures gradually faded, as the Pāñcarātra Saṃhitās provided a theological framework in which these personalities were reinterpreted as divine emanations of Vāsudeva himself.
By the Gupta period, Krsna had been fully integrated into a Brahmanical framework. Temple iconography begins to depict Krsna in his child form (Bala Krsna), his role as the lover of the Gopis (Gopala Krsna), and eventually as the charioteer of Arjuna. But the foundations for these transformations were laid much earlier in the hero-worship of the Vrsnis.
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| Krishna battling the horse demon Keshi, 5th century AD (Copyright) |
The Krsna cult’s success among foreign elites invites comparisons with parallel developments in Shaivism. While the Indo-Greek rulers favored Vasudeva, later Kushanas, and especially the Hunas (4th–6th century CE) were either openly or passively Shaivite. The Kushanas are a wild card because not only was their empire the first truly transnational empire in India, they were also the masters of Unity in Diversity. The depictions on their coins ranged from the Roman, Egyptian and Iranian deities to the Hindu and Buddhist Gods and Goddesses. Out of them, Oesho (Shiva) was among the most prominent in India. But rarely is a Vrsni found, except in the Mathura sculptures of the late Kushana period. However, this doesn't mean that the Vaishnavite elements were ignored. The last Great Kushana ruler was named Vasudeva, a far cry from the name of their progenitor, Kujula Kadphises of the Da Yuezhi.
On the other hand, Toramana (contested) and Mihirakula, the most prominent Huna rulers, are largely understood to be Shaivites. Kalhana's Rajatarangini describes Mihirakula as a staunch Shaivite who destroyed Buddhist monasteries. However, the Eran Boar inscription of Toramana was written by a staunch Vaishnavite, and it invokes Vishnu (now the sole carrier of Krsna's divinity) as the Supreme Lord of the universe.
The Shaivite imagery of these later dynasties, however, is markedly different in tone from the Krsnaite devotion of the earlier Greeks. Shaivism was often monistic and austere, associated with yogic control and renunciation. By contrast, early Krsnaism (before its Gita-phase) was more ecstatic, communal, and celebratory, reflected in festivals, musical traditions, and fraternal worship. This shift from Vaishnava to Shaiva dominance may reflect broader changes in theological preferences, political alignments, or even sectarian rivalry. As Vaishnavism adopted Krsna as the manifestation of Vishnu, it must have brought forth a rift in the divine hierarchy. After all, Siva, like Vishnu, was a primordial entity that predated the Rg Veda (according to S. Kramrisch, Rudra Brahman of the first Veda was not just a Proto-Siva, but Agni itself, the vengeful arrow shot at Brahma, causing the creation of life). Now that magnanimity is not challenged by the name of a peer (Vishnu), but his Avatar, worshipped as the Supreme. This schism would later produce some of the most interesting (and often violent) spiritual and philosophical conversations in the Medieval period, especially in South India. Unfortunately, those developments are so wide and multifaceted that it would be nigh impossible to cover them here.
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| (From left to right) Kushana Coins depicting Shiva, Skanda and Mahasena (Copyright) |
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| Eran Boar, Madhya Pradesh (Copyright) |
Regardless, considering a lack of cultural memory, the foreign appeal of Krsna perhaps lay in his dual persona. He is both heroic and divine, mortal and cosmic, tribal yet universal. This made him a suitable candidate for syncretism across cultural borders. By contrast, Shiva’s rise to prominence often reflected ideological assertion and even militaristic dominance, particularly among the entities with outspoken imperial ambitions. But Bhakti and Vedanta influenced both traditions all the same. While Vaishnavites produced some of the most compelling and conflicting metaphysical arguments in history, the Shaiva tradition too treaded a similar path, giving rise to Tantrism and impressive Non-Dualistic philosophies like Kashmir Shaivism.
But Krsna’s historical emergence, rooted in a real clan, referenced in heterodox sects, visualized in anthropomorphic art, inscribed in bilingual columns, and worshipped by transnational entities, distinguishes him uniquely among Hindu deities. He alone, among the major gods of the Hindu pantheon, offers a near-continuous, although not linear, historical path to apotheosis. His transformation is not merely mythic or philosophical, it is material, political, and transregional. The Vasudeva cult’s reach into Greek, Bactrian, Scythian, and Kushana worlds reveals not a passive absorption of local customs. It is an active reinvention that shapes South Asian and global religiosity to this day, spawning some of the most organized Krsnaite movements across the planet.
Further reading:
1. Gupta, Vinay. (2019). Vrishnis in Ancient Literature and Art.
2. The Rise and fall of the Kushan Empire; B. N Mukherjee
3. The Greeks in Bactria and India; W. W Tarn, Cambridge University Press
4. Krishna: A Sourcebook; Edwin F. Bryant
5. History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura (ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE); Sonya Rhie Quintanilla
6. Cults and Shrines in Early Historical Mathura (c. 200 BC-AD 200); Upinder Singh
7. The Presence of Siva; Stella Kramrisch
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